Top

Gepubliceerd in:

14-06-2018 | Original Paper

Children’s Shyness Moderates the Associations between Parenting Behavior and the Development of Children’s Pro-Social Behaviors

Auteurs: Maryam Zarra-Nezhad, Ali Moazami-Goodarzi, Jari-Erik Nurmi, Kenneth Eklund, Timo Ahonen, Kaisa Aunola

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Child and Family Studies | Uitgave 9/2018

Abstract

Shyness, feelings of uneasiness or hesitation when faced with a novel or unfamiliar social situation, in early childhood has been found to be a risk factor for social difficulties later in life. When combined with fitting parenting, however, outcomes of shyness can be less detrimental. The present study examined the joint effects of children’s shyness and mothers’ and fathers’ parenting on the development of children’s pro-social behaviors during early schooling years. A total of 200 children were rated by their parents on their shyness at age 3 and on their pro-social behaviors at ages 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9. The children’s mothers (n = 185) and fathers (n = 175) completed questionnaires measuring their levels of affection and behavioral control when the children were four years old. The results of the Latent Growth Curve modeling showed that, although maternal and parental affection were related to high levels of pro-social behavior for both shy and non-shy children, shy children, in particular, benefitted from parental affection in terms of their subsequent development of pro-social behaviors. The results further showed that paternal behavioral control was positively associated with pro-social behavioral levels among non-shy children only.

vorige artikel Family Socio-Economic Status and Parent-Child Relationships Are Associated with the Social Creativity of Elementary School Children: The Mediating Role of Personality Traits

volgende artikel Parents’ Perceptions of their Acceptance and Rejection Behaviors: Benchmarking Spain and Ecuador

Aunola, K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2004). Maternal affection moderates the impact of psychological control on a child’s mathematical performance. Developmental Psychology, 40, 965–978. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.6.965.CrossRefPubMed

Baer, J., Schreck, M., Althoff, R. R., Rettew, D., Harder, V., Ayer, L., & Hudziak, J. J. (2015). Child temperament, maternal parenting behavior, and child social functioning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 1152–1162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9924-5.CrossRefPubMed

Barstead, M. G., Smith, K. A., Laursen, B., Booth‐LaForce, C., King, S., & Rubin, K. H. (2017). Shyness, preference for solitude, and adolescent internalizing: the roles of maternal, paternal, and best‐friend support. Journal of Research on Adolescence. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12350.

Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885–908. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017376.CrossRefPubMed

Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010). Predicting emotional and social competence during early childhood from toddler risk and maternal behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990307.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664–678. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.CrossRefPubMed

Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2006). Latent curve models: a structural equation perspective (Vol. 467). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Booth-Laforce, C., & Oxford, M. L. (2008). Trajectories of social withdrawal from grades 1 to 6: prediction from early parenting, attachment, and temperament. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1298–1313. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012954.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Booth, C. L. (1994). Predicting social adjustment in middle childhood: the role of preschool attachment security and maternal style. Social Development, 3, 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.1994.tb00040.x.CrossRef

Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children’s development. Child Development Perspectives. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12275.

Cheek, J. M., & Krasnoperova, E. N. (1999). Varieties of shyness in adolescence and adulthood. In L. A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 224–250). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.CrossRef

Chen, X., Liu, M., & Li, D. (2000). Parental warmth, control, and indulgence and their relations to adjustment in Chinese children: a longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 401–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.14.3.401.CrossRefPubMed

Coplan, R. J., DeBow, A., Schneider, B. H., & Graham, A. A. (2009). The social behaviors of extremely inhibited children in and out of preschool. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27, 891–905. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151008X396153.CrossRefPubMed

Coplan, R. J., Prakash, K., O’Neil, K., & Armer, M. (2004). Do you ‘want’ to play? Distinguishing between conflicted-shyness and social disinterest in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 40, 244–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.244.CrossRefPubMed

Daniel, E., Madigan, S., & Jenkins, J. (2016). Paternal and maternal warmth and the development of prosociality among preschoolers. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000120.CrossRefPubMed

Davidov, M., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes. Child Development, 77, 44–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00855.x.CrossRefPubMed

Day, R. D., & Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2009). Mother and father connectedness and involvement during early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 900–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016438.CrossRefPubMed

Degnan, K. A., Henderson, H. A., Fox, N. A., & Rubin, K. H. (2008). Predicting social wariness in middle childhood: the moderating roles of childcare history, maternal personality and maternal behavior. Social Development, 17, 471–487. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00437.x.CrossRefPubMed

Dyson, M. W., Klein, D. N., Olino, T. M., Dougherty, L. R., & Durbin, C. E. (2011). Social and non-social behavioral inhibition in preschool-age children: differential associations with parent-reports of temperament and anxiety. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42, 390–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-011-0225-6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Eggum, N. D., Eisenberg, N., Reiser, M., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Sallquist, J., & Liew, J. (2012). Relations over time among children’s shyness, emotionality, and internalizing problems. Social Development, 21(1), 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00618.x.CrossRefPubMed

Eisenberg, N. & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Pro-social development. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: vol. 3. Social, emotional and personality development (5th edn.). New York, NY: Wiley.

Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Knafo-Noam, A. (2015). Prosocial development. In M. E. Lamb & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: socioemotional processes (pp. 610–656). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Fang, H., & Gagne, J. R. (2017). Young children’s behavioral inhibition mediates the association between maternal negative affectivity and internalizing problems: observations, parent-report, and moderation of associations by age. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42, 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025417690261.CrossRef

Fagan, J., Day, R., Lamb, M. E., & Cabrera, N. J. (2014). Should researchers conceptualize differently the dimensions of parenting for fathers and mothers? Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6, 390–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12044.CrossRef

Farrant, B. M., Devine, T. A., Maybery, M. T., & Fletcher, J. (2012). Empathy, perspective taking and prosocial behaviour: the importance of parenting practices. Infant and Child Development, 21, 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.740.CrossRef

Feng, X., Shaw, D. S., Kovacs, M., Lane, T., O’Rourke, F. E., & Alarcon, J. H. (2008). Emotion regulation in preschoolers: the roles of behavioral inhibition, maternal affective behavior, and maternal depression. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(2), 132–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01828.x.PubMed

Gallagher, K. C. (2002). Does child temperament moderate the influence of parenting on adjustment? Developmental Review, 22, 623–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-2297(02)00503-8.CrossRef

Gazelle, H., & Ladd, G. W. (2003). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion: a diathesis-stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood. Child Development, 74, 257–278. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00534.CrossRefPubMed

Gazelle, H., & Rudolph, K. D. (2004). Moving toward and away from the world: social approach and avoidance trajectories in anxious solitary youth. Child Development, 75, 829–849. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00709.x.CrossRefPubMed

Hane, A. A., Cheah, C., Rubin, K. H., & Fox, N. A. (2008). The role of maternal behavior in the relation between shyness and social reticence in early childhood and social withdrawal in middle childhood. Social Development, 17, 795–811. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00481.x.CrossRef

Hart, C. H., Newell, L. D., & Olsen, S. F. (2003). Parenting skills and social-communicative competence in childhood. In J. O. Greene & B. R. Burleson (Eds.), Handbook of communication and social interaction skills (pp. 753–797). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hastings, P. D., Miller, J. G., & Troxel, N. R. (2015). Making good: the socialization of children’s prosocial development. In J. E. Grusec & P. D. Hastings (Eds.), Handbook of socialization. 2nd edn. (pp. 637–660). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Hastings, P. D., Rubin, K. H., & DeRose, L. (2005). Links among gender, inhibition, and parental socialization in the development of Pro-social behavior. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51, 467–493. https://doi.org/10.1353/mpq.2005.0023.CrossRef

Hay, D. F., & Pawlby, S. (2003). Pro-social development in relation to children’s and mothers’ psychological problems. Child Development, 74, 1314–1327. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00609.CrossRefPubMed

Hoffman, M. L. (1970). Moral development. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child development (Vol. 2, pp. 261–359). New York, NY: Wiley.

Huntsinger, C. S., & Jose, P. E. (2009). Relations among parental acceptance and control and children’s social adjustment in Chinese American and European American families. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 321–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015812.CrossRefPubMed

Isley, S. L., O’Neil, R., Clatfelter, D., & Parke, R. D. (1999). Parent and child expressed affect and children’s social competence: modeling direct and indirect pathways. Developmental Psychology, 35, 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.35.2.547.CrossRefPubMed

Janson, H., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2008). Temperament profiles from infancy to middle childhood: development and associations with behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1314–1328. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012713.CrossRefPubMed

Kestenbaum, R., Farber, E. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1989). Individual differences in empathy among preschoolers: relation to attachment history. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1989(44), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.23219894405.CrossRef

Kienbaum, J., Volland, C., & Ulich, D. (2001). Sympathy in the context of mother-child and teacher-child relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 302–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250143000076.CrossRef

Knafo, A., & Plomin, R. (2006). Parental discipline and affection and children’s prosocial behavior: genetic and environmental links. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 147–164. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.147.CrossRefPubMed

Kochanska, G. (1997). Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: from toddlerhood to age five. Developmental Psychology, 33, 228–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.33.2.228.CrossRefPubMed

Lamb, M. E., & Lewis, C. (2010). The development and significance of father-child relationships in two parent families. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development. 5th edn. (pp. 94–153). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Lane, J. D., & Song, J. (2015). Behavioral inhibition and social withdrawal across cultures. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), International encyclopedia of social and behavioral sciences. 2nd edn. (pp. 456–462). Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.CrossRef

Lansford, J. E., Criss, M. M., Laird, R. D., Shaw, D. S., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2011). Reciprocal relations between parents’ physical discipline and children’s externalizing behavior during middle childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 225–238. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000751.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Lewis-Morrarty, E., Degnan, K. A., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Rubin, K. H., Cheah, C. S., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2012). Maternal over-control moderates the association between early childhood behavioral inhibition and adolescent social anxiety symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1363–1373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9663-2.CrossRefPubMed

Li, Y., Liu, L., Lv, Y., Xu, L., Wang, Y., & Huntsinger, C. S. (2015). Mother–child and teacher–child relationships and their influences on Chinese only and non-only children’s early social behaviors: the moderator role of urban–rural status. Children and Youth Services Review, 51, 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.01.023.CrossRef

Liew, J., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Eggum, N. D., Haugen, R. G., & Kupfer, A.. et al. (2011). Physiological regulation and fearfulness as predictors of young children’s empathy-related reactions. Journal of Social Development, 20, 111–134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2010.00575.x.CrossRefPubMed

Lonigan, C. J., Phillips, B. M., & Hooe, E. S. (2003). Relations of positive and negative affectivity to anxiety and depression in children: evidence from a latent variable longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 465–481. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.3.465.CrossRefPubMed

Lyytinen, H., & Ahonen, T. (2008). The Jyväskylä longitudinal study of dyslexia. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä.

Marsiglio, W., Amato, P., Day, R., & Lamb., M. E. (2000). Scholarship on fatherhood in the 1990s and beyond. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1173–1191. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01173.x.CrossRef

Nigg, J. T. (2006). Temperament and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 395–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01612.x.CrossRefPubMed

Parke, R. D. (2002). Fathers and families. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: vol. 3. Being and becoming a parent. 2nd edn. (pp. 27–73). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Pluess, M., & Belsky, J. (2013). Vantage sensitivity: Individual differences in response to positive experiences. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 901–916. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030196.CrossRefPubMed

Rapee, R. M., & Coplan, R. J. (2010). Conceptual relations between anxiety disorder and fearful temperament. In H. Gazelle & K. H. Rubin (Eds.), Social anxiety in childhood: bridging developmental and clinical perspectives (pp. 17–32). San Francisco, CA: Wiley.

Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). Manual for the BASC: behavior assessment system for children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Roberts, G. C., Block, H., & Block, J. (1984). Continuity and change in parents’ child-rearing practices. Child Development, 55, 586–597. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129970.CrossRef

Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hershey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three toseven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394–1408. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00355.CrossRefPubMed

Rubin, K. H., Hastings, P. D., Stewart, S. L., Henderson, H. A., & Chen, X. (1997). The consistency andconcomitants of inhibition: Some of the children, all of the time. Child Development, 68, 467–483. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131672.CrossRefPubMed

Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., & Hastings, P. D. (2002). Stability and social-behavioral consequences of toddlers’ inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors. Child Development, 73, 483–495. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00419.CrossRefPubMed

Rubin, K. H., & Coplan, R. J. (2010). The development of shyness and social withdrawal. New York, NY: Guilford.

Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, J. C. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 141–171. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163642.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentral

Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., Bowker, J. C., & Menzer, M. (2011). Shyness and social withdrawal. In P. K. Smith & C. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development. 2nd edn (pp. 434–452). New York, NY: Wiley-Blackwell.CrossRef

Russell, A., & Russell, G. (1996). Positive parenting and boys’ and girls’ misbehavior during a home observation. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 291–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/016502596385794.CrossRef

Russell, A., Hart, C. H., Robinson, C. C., & Olsen, S. F. (2003). Children’s sociable and aggressive behavior with peers: a comparison of the US and Australia, and contributions of temperament and parenting styles. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 74–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250244000038.CrossRef

Siu, A. M., Shek, D. T., & Law, B. (2012). Prosocial norms as a positive youth development construct: a conceptual review. The Scientific World Journal. https://doi.org/10.1100/2012/832026.

Stevenson, M., & Crnic, K. (2013). Intrusive fathering, children’s self‐regulation and social skills: a mediation analysis. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57, 500–512. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01549.x.CrossRefPubMed

Suchman, N. E., Rounsaville, B., DeCoste, C., & Luthar, S. (2007). Parental control, parental warmth, and psychosocial adjustment in a sample of substance-abusing mothers and their school-aged and adolescent children. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 32(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2006.07.002.CrossRefPubMed

Tang, A., & Van Lieshout, R. J., Lahat, A., Duku, E., Boyle, M. H., Saigal, S., & Schmidt, L. A. (2017). Shyness trajectories across the first four decades predict mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1621–1633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-017-0265-x.CrossRefPubMed

Thomas, A., & Chess, S., (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Vreeke, L. J., Muris, P., Mayer, B., Huijding, J., & Rapee, R. M. (2013). Skittish, shielded, and scared: relations among behavioral inhibition, overprotective parenting, and anxiety in native and non-native Dutch preschool children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27, 703–710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.09.006.CrossRefPubMed

Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11, 271–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7078.2007.tb00227.x.CrossRef

Zarra-Nezhad, M., Kiuru, N., Aunola, K., Zarra-Nezhad, M., Ahonen, T., Poikkeus, A.-M., Lerkkanen, M.-K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2014). Social withdrawal in children moderates the association between parenting styles and the children’s own socioemotional development. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 55, 1260–1269. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12251.CrossRef

Zarra-Nezhad, M., Aunola, K., Kiuru, N., Mullola, S., & Moazami-Goodarzi, A. (2015). Parenting styles and children’s emotional development during the first grade: the moderating role of child temperament. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy, 5, 206 https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0487.1000206.CrossRef

Zarra-Nezhad, M. (2016). The joint effects of parenting styles and the child's temperamental characteristicsin children's social-emotional development. Doctoral dissertation, University of Jyväskylädatabase.

Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. H., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Guthrie, I. K., & Shepard, S. A. (2002). The relations of parental warmth and positive expressiveness to children’s empathy‐related responding and social functioning: a longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(3), 893–915. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00446.CrossRefPubMed

Titel: Children’s Shyness Moderates the Associations between Parenting Behavior and the Development of Children’s Pro-Social Behaviors
Auteurs: Maryam Zarra-Nezhad
Ali Moazami-Goodarzi
Jari-Erik Nurmi
Kenneth Eklund
Timo Ahonen
Kaisa Aunola
Publicatiedatum: 14-06-2018
Uitgeverij: Springer US
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Child and Family Studies / Uitgave 9/2018
Print ISSN: 1062-1024
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-2843
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1134-0

Andere artikelen Uitgave 9/2018

Technology in Parenting Programs: A Systematic Review of Existing Interventions

Review paper

Resiliency Moderates the Influence of Somatization on Externalizing Problems

Original Paper

Linkage between Parent-Child Frontal Resting Electroencephalogram (EEG) Asymmetry: The Moderating Role of Emotional Parenting

Original Paper

Trauma-Informed Family Practices: Toward Integrated and Evidence-Based Approaches

Review Paper

Adolescent Mothers’ Relationships with their Mothers and their Babies’ Fathers during Pregnancy and Postpartum

Original Research

Family Social Support Networks of African American and Black Caribbean Adolescents

Original Paper

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Welkom bij THIM Hogeschool voor Fysiotherapie & Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Registreer

Login

Children’s Shyness Moderates the Associations between Parenting Behavior and the Development of Children’s Pro-Social Behaviors

Abstract

Andere artikelen Uitgave 9/2018

Technology in Parenting Programs: A Systematic Review of Existing Interventions

Resiliency Moderates the Influence of Somatization on Externalizing Problems

Linkage between Parent-Child Frontal Resting Electroencephalogram (EEG) Asymmetry: The Moderating Role of Emotional Parenting

Trauma-Informed Family Practices: Toward Integrated and Evidence-Based Approaches

Adolescent Mothers’ Relationships with their Mothers and their Babies’ Fathers during Pregnancy and Postpartum

Family Social Support Networks of African American and Black Caribbean Adolescents

Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Welkom bij THIM Hogeschool voor Fysiotherapie & Bohn Stafleu van Loghum

Registreer

Login

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

Abstract

Log in om toegang te krijgen

Technology in Parenting Programs: A Systematic Review of Existing Interventions

Resiliency Moderates the Influence of Somatization on Externalizing Problems

Linkage between Parent-Child Frontal Resting Electroencephalogram (EEG) Asymmetry: The Moderating Role of Emotional Parenting

Trauma-Informed Family Practices: Toward Integrated and Evidence-Based Approaches

Adolescent Mothers’ Relationships with their Mothers and their Babies’ Fathers during Pregnancy and Postpartum

Family Social Support Networks of African American and Black Caribbean Adolescents